There are many types of evidence that provide information about methods for obtaining animal nutrients. Several researchers suggest that the main element to be considered is the skeletal representation of the different species identified in the faunal assemblage. This element must be associated to the animals’ age at death and the localisation of processing marks of the carcasses (both those of anthropic origin and those produced by carnivores). Occasionally, these marks coincide on the same point of the bone, giving cause for overlapping marks. These marks can be considered an aid more to identify the anthropic manner for obtaining animal recourses. However, these cases are very unusual at archaeological sites, and it is not always easy to identify which of the two predators has obtained the prey first. Through the experimental process presented in this article, we have observed diagnostic elements on overlapping marks that show the action sequence of the predators (hominids and carnivores) on carcasses. These experimental criteria were applied to different archaeological sites of the Lower and Middle Pleistocene in the Iberian Peninsula: Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain) and level TD10-1 and TD6-2 of Gran Dolina (Atapuerca, Burgos). In these assemblages, we were able to distinguish hunting and scavenging events through overlapping marks, providing a new element to the general interpretation of these sites.
The study of subsistence strategies at archaeological sites is important in order to know the behaviour of human communities in the past. One of the most important aspects to define the strategies used by the hominids is the procurement of faunal resources. During the last decades, one important debate about the animal obtaining ways in different moments of the Pleistocene has been proposed. There are countless works related to this subject
Several interpretations have been proposed according to taxonomical composition of faunal assemblages. The presence of dominant species in an assemblage of anthropic origin can be interpreted on one hand, as the result of specialised hunting activities
According to Gaudzinski and Roebroecks
Differential transport of anatomical parts to places of habitat is one of the most widely studied matters by the Ethnoarchaeology size of the prey; time of the day the animal is obtained; number of available carriers; distance to the camp.
Oliver
Study of the situation and type of cutmarks on anatomical elements indicates the action carried out. Incisions related to the extraction of viscera or large muscle mass can be interpreted as a primary access to carcasses
The combination of all these elements is basic to making a good zooarchaeological interpretation of the whole assemblage. However, we must take into account that archaeological sites are usually palimpsests composed by multiple events. Therefore, distinguishing between them is often a complex task, and so palaeoeconomic interpretations tend to generalise. However, some archaeological assemblages occasionally have bone remains that allow individualising specific events of primary and/or secondary access. These direct evidences are bone remains with
In order to carry out this experimental process and reproduce overlapping marks on the bones, ten skeletal elements with meat were used: two scapulae, one pelvis, one tibia and one humerus from a modern adult pig (
The bones were defleshed with a flint flake and cutmarks on the bone surface were documented. These marks are mainly incisions. The
The generated surface alterations (cutmarks and carnivore toothmarks) were treated at both macroscopic and microscopic levels (Olympus SZ stereomicroscope working from 18 to 110 magnifications). All the experimental process was photographed systematically.
First, five anatomical elements (one scapula, one pelvis, and one tibia of
After this, incisions were made on the five bones that did not have cutmarks prior to the action of the carnivores. These striae were made at the same point where the carnivore toothmarks had been observed. Once this process was carried out, the bones were cleaned and analysed at macroscopic and microscopic level to observe possible differences between cutmarks made previously and those made after the action of the carnivores.
Cutmarks were documented on the five defleshed anatomical elements before being subjected to the action of the carnivores. In total, 93 incisions were analysed (
Only in 11.8% of the cases, overlapping of toothmarks over cutmarks was observed. These are located on the subscapular fossa (two), scapular neck (one) and supraspinous fossa (one) of the scapula, on the iliac fossa (one) and ischium (one) of the pelvis and on the diaphysis (two) and distal and proximal metaphysis (three) of the tibia. Overlapped marks were observed on six scores and five punctures. In general, all cutmarks interrupted by toothmarks do not portray variations in their delineation or in their width or depth in any case. Furthermore, the section of the cutmark affected by the toothmark tends to disappear in 90.9% of the cases (
Observations drawn from this experimental series can be summarised as follows: overlapping is documented on both limb bones and flat bones; punctures dominate on flat bones and on the metaphysis of limb bones; scores are most common on the diaphysis of limb bones; cutmarks interrupted by toothmarks do not describe variations in their delineation, width or depth; the section of the cutmark affected by a toothmark tends to disappear (whether it is due to dragging the teeth or because of the pressure of the cusp). Therefore, toothmarks do not usually contain signs of cutmarks on their internal surface (side walls and base).
Five skeletal elements with meat were subjected to the action of the dogs. After the time set for the activity of the carnivores, all the bones showed toothmarks (
In this experimental series, modifications were observed on both cutmarks and toothmarks ( when the cutmark comes into contact with the puncture, an extension of its width and depth is normally produced; when the incision comes out of the puncture, it bumps into the toothmark edge and is printed on the internal surface of the toothmark.
At the point of departure, the cutmarks often described an extension depth greater than when it enters in the puncture, and in some cases, a notch on the toothmark edge is produced.
These alterations were registered in the same way on both flat bones and limb bones of the species used for this experiment.
In general, the observations drawn from this experimental series can be summarised as follows: punctures dominate on flat bones and on the metaphysis of limb bones; scores are most common on the diaphysis of limb bones; the type of toothmark conditions the modifications; the cutmarks made on punctures are subject to variations in width and depth in the area closest to the toothmark. In the case of scores, incisions usually portray variations in delineation; toothmarks contain signs of cutmarks on their edges. When the toothmark is not very deep, striae can also appear on the base. This last alteration is mainly produced on scores; several of the observed modifications are related to the direction of the cutmarks; all the described modifications do not always occur at the same time and can appear independently.
Gran Dolina (Burgos, Spain) is a cave with a sedimentary sequence divided into 11 stratigraphic levels that cover from the end of the Lower Pleistocene to the Middle Pleistocene. In this study, we present the remains with overlapping marks from two sublevels: TD6-2 (Aurora Stratum) and TD10-1. Level TD6 is formed by gravels and boulders clastic flow deposit (2–2.5 m thick) and this level is well-known by the recovered
Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain) is a cave with a sedimentary sequence divided into 17 stratigraphic levels that cover temporal part of the Middle Pleistocene (MIS 9 to MIS 5e). The faunal assemblage from Bolomor Cave includes 20 macromammals species. The biostratigraphic sequence is mainly characterised by the presence of
Overlapping marks have been identified on 19 bone remains: six at level XII and 13 at level IV. Most of this overlapping concurs with the general interpretation of the sets on the primary access to carcasses by hominids.
Most of the cutmarks do not describe variations in their delineation, width or depth in the area closest to the toothmark. In the same way, cutmarks do not usually appear on toothmark edges and base ( variations in the cutmark's delineation ( extension of cutmark's width and depth in the area closest to the toothmark ( incisions on the toothmark edges and base (
According to experimental criteria, the direction of the cutmarks on punctures has been clearly identified in one case (
Nevertheless, some overlapping marks do not present sufficient criteria to identify the predators’ sequence of access to the prey. In these cases, the general characteristics of the archaeological set must be considered: the taxonomy, skeletal representation, the animals’ age at death, the anthropic processing marks and those made by carnivores.
The overlapping marks on bone remains of an archaeological assemblage are a direct evidence to determine whether hominids were the first to obtain the prey or not. Through this experimental process, we have observed diagnostic elements on overlapping marks that show the sequence of action of the predators (hominids and carnivores) on carcasses. These criteria consist of modifications on both cutmarks and toothmarks. In cases in which the cutmarks are located over the toothmarks, the following characteristics are documented: variations in the delineation, thickness and depth of cutmarks in the area closest to the depression; the toothmarks contain signs of cutmarks on their edges and when the depression is not very deep, striae can also appear on their base; and/or according to the direction of the cutmarks, when the incision comes into contact with the toothmark, an extension of the width and depth is produced and when the incision comes out of the puncture, normally is printed on the toothmark wall describing an increase of depth on the puncture edge. Sometimes, this extension of depth produces a notch on the toothmark edge. On the other hand, in cases where the toothmarks are above the cutmarks, the section of incision interrupted by the toothmark tends to disappear. These experimental criteria have been applied to different archaeological sites of the Lower and Middle Pleistocene in the Iberian Peninsula: levels XII and IV of Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain), and levels TD10-1 and TD6-2 of Gran Dolina (Atapuerca, Burgos). In these assemblages, the overlapping marks indicate primary accesses to the carcasses by hominids. According to zooarchaeological data, these kinds of accesses are most common in the presented archaeological sets
Special thanks to the directors of Bolomor Cave and Sierra de Atapuerca projects, Josep Fernández Peris, Eudald Carbonell, José María Bermúdez de Castro and Juan Luis Arsuaga, for their support. Thanks to fieldwork teams. We are grateful to José Navarro and family for letting us to carry out this experiment with his dogs. Special thanks to Florent Rivals and Helle Ketter for English corrections. Thanks to Prehistory Museum of Valencia, to SIP (Prehistoric Investigation Service) and to Conselleria de Cultura de la Generalitat Valenciana for their economic contribution to the Bolomor Cave excavation. The research in the Atapuerca sites is supported by Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia Spanish Government Grant CGL2006-13532-C03-01. Ruth Blasco is the beneficiary of a predoctoral research fellowship (FI) from the Generalitat de Catalunya and financed by European Social Found.
Experimental examples of carnivore toothmarks over cutmarks (view binocular SZ11):
Fig. 1. Exemples expérimentaux de morsures de carnivore sur stries de découpe (vue à la binoculaire SZ11) :
Experimental examples of cutmarks over carnivore toothmarks (view binocular SZ11).
Fig. 2. Exemples expérimentaux de stries de découpe sur morsures de carnivore (vue binoculaire SZ11).
Modifications observed on cutmarks and carnivore toothmarks according to incision direction.
Fig. 3. Modifications observées sur les stries et les morsures de carnivore selon la direction de l’incision.
Overlapping of carnivore toothmarks over incisions from Gran Dolina faunal assemblage (Burgos, Spain).
Fig. 4. Superposition de morsures de carnivore sur incisions du site de Gran Dolina (Burgos, Espagne).
Examples of overlapping marks on faunal remains from Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain).
Fig. 5. Exemples de superposition de traces de la Grotte du Bolomor (Valence, Espagne) ;
Scapula with cutmarks over puncture from Level XII of Bolomor Cave. Note the bone modifications according to the direction of incisions.
Fig. 6. Scapula avec des stries sur une
Number of cutmarks made on the skeletal elements before being subjected to the dogs gnawing. Maximum and minimum lengths were taken in millimetres.
Tableau 1 Nombre de stries réalisées sur les éléments squelettiques, avant qu’ils ne soient soumis à l’action des chiens. Longueurs maximale et minimale ont été prises en millimètres.
Number of toothmarks observed on the skeletal elements with cutmarks. Maximum and minimum widths were taken in millimetres.
Tableau 2 Nombre de morsures observées sur les éléments squelettiques avec des stries. Largeurs maximale et minimale ont été prises en millimètres.
Number of toothmarks identified on the anatomical elements without cutmarks. Maximum and minimum widths were taken in millimetres.
Tableau 3 Nombre de morsures identifiées sur les éléments anatomiques sans stries. Largeurs maximale et minimale ont été prises en millimètres.
Cutmarks and toothmarks modifications according to the action sequence of hominids and carnivores on experimental bones.
Tableau 4 Modifications des stries et des morsures de carnivore en fonction de la séquence d’intervention des hominidés et des carnivores sur les os expérimentaux.